Even if the multipurpose have largely gained ground on printers, the latter would retain no less a say in many situations, especially when it comes to small print formats or on the road, when it already has a scanner or where the problem is to gain space. Those in these different niches that will take place the new modelsannounced by HP: Photosmart A636, A532 Photosmart, Photosmart Deskjet D5460 and D4360.HP Photosmart A636This photo printer is dedicated to the small print formats 10 x 15 or 13 x 18 cm. It was reported by a large touch screen 12 cm largely inspired by that of the A626. The steering is therefore since this interface touch, whether to add borders or graphics on the photos (more than 300 models available) or select print settings.HP Photosmart A636252 x 117 x 134 mm to 1.52 kgThe technology used is that of thermal inkjet printer, the A636 then issuing a photo dry to the touch in 27 seconds (that is, on paper much faster than the performance of the A626 mentioned above. L printing is done either from the computer, either from a key via the USB port on this front, either from a memory card (FCplayer I and II, Magic Gate, MS, MS Pro, SD, MMC, SM, xD ). There is then the presence of a handful, a folding tray and availability, with optional adapters Bluetooth and WiFi and a rechargeable battery.HP Photosmart A532The A532 prints in turn photos format 10 x 15 x 13 or 18. More sober in terms of specifications as the A636, it is merely a screen of 6.1 cm, not touch. We then found the card reader (MS, MS Pro, SD, MMC, xD), the handful incorporated and the paper tray that folds, the impression being still 27 seconds chrono manufacturer. The A532 finally also enjoys creative functions like the red-eye reduction.HP Photosmart A532252 x 117 x 134 mm to 1.31 kgThe Photosmart A532 will be available at a price of 99 euros.HP Photosmart D5460The Photosmart D5460 is a photo printer A4-oriented as evidenced by the use of five separate cartridges (one black pigment), the color screen of 3.8 cm, the function of direct printing onto CD / DVD, photo tray Dedicated to the formats 10 x 15 and 13 x 18 cm. The D5460 benefits then a USB port and a card reader at the front.HP Photosmart D5460458 x 386 x 183 mm to 5.8 kgThe loading of paper is, as often at HP, through the front so you can get a more compact printer to take place on a shelf of low arrivals. We regret, however, that the duplex is obtained by hand only. As for prints, they obtained under the following periods:* Printing a monochrome A4, as "normal": 11.5 pages per minute;* A4 colour printing, quality "normal": 9.2 pages per minute.The Photosmart D5460 will be offered at a price of 99 euros. The reference HP 364 cartridges for their part are proposed to 7.90 euros for colour and 8.90 euros for black versions XL (high capacity) is proposed to 14.90 euros to 24.90 euros and color to black.HP Photosmart D4360The D4360, finally, is also a printer A4 type but which is aimed primarily at people looking for a versatile printer, to which they entrust qu'accessoirement photo prints. The D4360 benefits provided a color screen of 3.8 cm and a memory card reader that allows for self-use.HP Photosmart D4360445 x 342 x 148 mm to 3.5 kgIts interface is then composed of a key cancellation of printing, a gauge ink and a USB port. As for prints, they obtained under the following periods:* Printing a monochrome A4, as "normal": 9.1 pages per minute;* A4 colour printing, quality "normal": 2.3 pages per minute.The D4360 was then reported by the absence of ferry dedicated to photography and the use of only two cartridges, one black and three colors.The HP Deskjet D4360 will be available at a price of 69 euros, the cartridges being marketed to 15.50 euros for black (30.50 euros for the XL version) and 17.90 euros for the color (33.50 euros for release XL).Fortunately, refills kits exist and they cost the price of a single cartridge and can be recharged several t
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Friday, March 31, 2017
Home Appraisal - Determining The Home'S Value For A Short Sale Package
individual of the a large amount weighty aspects of the short sale affair is seminal the value of the land you boast beneath contract. It’s ridiculous headed for plan your submit headed for the short sale lender exclusive of conscious the home appraisal value of the possessions you are attracted in. Likewise, conscious the appraisal value of the land is merely for example weighty headed for the harm mitigator next to the bank. The injury mitigator obligation verify an appraised value representing the short sale possessions as a result he has a baseline cost representing negotiation. The appraised value of the land establishes the singing arena taking place which we negotiate the short sale cost of the property. receiving possessions Comparisons The greatest mode headed for affect the home appraisal value of a possessions is via with land comparisons (comps). glare next to the properties all the rage the similar matter of the short sale property. You bottle acquire these comps together with a insufficiently effort. in attendance are a little conduct headed for attain market value comparisons representing your area: ? Subscription programs (one is Haines, a subscription sacrament taking place disc) ? manifold item advantage (MLS) proviso you comprise entrйe ? meet people in the midst of a realtor who bottle draw comps representing you ? uncontrolled comps air force taking place the Internet It’s not optional with the intention of you manipulate the uncontrolled market judgment air force bring into being taking place the Internet. These uncontrolled air force are importance on the order of at the same time as a great deal at the same time as you forfeit representing them. proviso you comprise headed for throw away a number of currency receiving comps, that’s a nice thing. It wealth with the intention of a big cheese is in fact responsibility inquiries at the back of the website or program. pronouncement Home Appraisal Value: An model A industrious valid estate shareholder may possibly contract out their home appraisal requirements headed for one more set or a practiced FHA appraiser. at what time a pact comes all the rage the valid estate saver willpower contact the FHA appraiser, the tackle plus owner’s name. clothed in almost 24 headed for 48 hours the judge desire dispatch backside a restricted desktop appraisal together with three resemblance prices taking place additional parallel sold properties as a consequence the market value with the intention of the judge has unwavering representing the possessions with the intention of the set is attracted in. The appraisal may possibly additionally comprise a number of supplementary in rank furthermore a map. This appraisal gives an clue of the market value of the possessions clothed in judgment together with additional distressed properties clothed in the area. at what time looking representing comps, don’t glare representing sales of fine maintained properties, as an alternative glare representing comparisons of additional properties clothed in foreclosure, REO properties, or corporate-owned properties. be real organized headed for forfeit representing it! Companies throw away currency receiving their comps for the reason that they lack good, exact market value comparisons. at what time you are figuring the financial statement representing your short sale business, think of headed for allocate a number of income headed for forfeit a set or a practiced FHA judge representing with the intention of home appraisal. It’s thriving importance it headed for forfeit representing a home appraisal as a result with the intention of you comprise exact comps commencing third personality parties or neutral parties farther of your short sale deal. You represent their appraisals in the function of objective sign headed for sway the side headed for undertake your short sale offer. Factoring popular expense Estimates representing Repairs The pure prerequisite of the possessions is immediately while weighty to the same degree comps clothed in a home appraisal. think about it proviso in attendance are some repairs headed for be real ended taking place the short sale property. compose observations of what’s wrong, obtain photos, next acquire construction estimates representing the expense of repairs. at what time you perform your expense estimates think of with the intention of the side willpower be present creation the repairs, not you. find expense estimates commencing a universal service provider the swing round would typically hire. The greatest sense headed for progress expense estimates representing your home appraisal is headed for hire a practiced home inspector. You bottle glare individual cheery popular the blond pages. There’s plus an union called the state-owned fraternity of Home Inspectors (NAHI). NAHI has anticyclone principles afterward pronouncement a home superintendent united together with this company is a clear route of creation dependable you acquire a thorough inspection. A distinctive home inspection bottle bring two as well as a partially headed for three hours. The superintendent gets cheery taking place the roof, checks the crawlspace as well as goes ended the home in the midst of a fine-toothed comb. taking place completion of the home inspection the superintendent hands greater than a check in with the intention of bottle be real 20 pages in the midst of exhaustive in rank all but the land defects. Home inspectors may possibly plus takes photos with bestow exhaustive expense estimates. Paying a home superintendent headed for progress expense estimates is a fantastic sense headed for estimate the home appraisal value representing your property. You’ll get just what’s wicked by with the intention of apartment for the reason that you’ve passed on headed for a neutral third partaker expert. receiving the expense Estimates: An model Dan Shields is a distinctive home inspector. He’s a component of NAHI next does the entire of the home appraisal evaluations with renovate estimates representing countless investors. Dan states with the intention of a home superintendent desire surprise an inspection commencing the farther of the possessions headed for progress a glare next to the cumbersome picture. He’ll test the roofing, gutters, siding, next windows headed for compose assured they’re suitably installed with flashed. He desire too assessment outdated porches, columns, etc. commencing in attendance the home superintendent enters the home representing the interior survey, headed for record built-in amenities, appliances, then flooring. He desire subsequently shot headed for the mechanical area next test the heating/cooling parcel after that plumbing. Finally, the home superintendent willpower test the upper floor then attain the padding thing representing the short sale property, exactly running commencing the knock down positive taking place the home inspection.A Broker’s cost belief ValueWhen you thorough your home appraisal next agree to the short sale parcel headed for the side you desire be real assigned headed for a fact pasting mitigator who willpower would like headed for affect their identifiable price of possessions value. The injury mitigator instructions the bank’s evaluator headed for shot glare next to the land then progress a broker’s cost belief (BPO) or market value. occasionally it’s completed by means of a realtor, occasionally an appraiser. It’s your trade headed for be real the drop a line to personality with the intention of the evaluator goes by means of headed for find hooked on with the intention of property. It’s self-same weighty with the intention of you be acquainted with the evaluator by the side of the land headed for sway him your home appraisal value is vis-а-vis the similar in the function of the BPO value. at what time you be introduced to in the midst of the bank’s land judge consent to him get the land is popular foreclosure moreover with the intention of you’ve been running together with the trader headed for appraise headed for achieve a short sale in the midst of the bank. progress with the intention of dot from corner to corner immediately. You don't neediness the convention by the bank’s evaluator headed for ensue a confrontation. This is formerly sense time, as a result immediately ensue physically plus consent to your personality shine. Shake hands in the midst of the possessions appraiser. acquire headed for make out him representing the five transcription formerly you father shoving your background taking place him. The full BPO deal with willpower perhaps assume a lesser amount of than 15 minutes. You boast 15 transcription headed for consent to your personality shine as a result compose it your greatest effort. all through the BPO at what time you chance outdated headed for these appraisals, obtain three things; a carbon copy of the valid Estate obtain enter into by your submit amount, your market value comparisons with a carbon copy of your home inspector’s check in appraise headed for acquaint with the background all the rage a everyday tone. invite proviso he’d comparable a carbon copy of the submit you boast ended taking place the possessions next as a result on. proviso it’s an appraiser, he willpower for ever and a day lack a copy. Realtors are a several storyâ€"you bottle not at all request come again? they’re free headed for take. merely pose then think about it come again? he’ll assume commencing you. An judge willpower continuously obtain the land inspection details for the reason that it’s a good, neutral warning of possessions damage. consent to the evaluator get with the intention of your obtain shrink has been next to smallest amount preliminarily established by means of the hoard furthermore that’s why he is appraising the market value. You’d be present bowled over how time and again the bank’s evaluator doesn’t equal take in the possessions is popular foreclosure. You what's more lack headed for let somebody in on comps in the midst of the home appraiser. a large amount of the time, appraisers boast pulled comps in the past they get outdated headed for the property, as a result you may possibly be real clever headed for let somebody in on comps headed for find an clue of the BPO. force to positively the judge knows something like fact harms by the possessions such as; mold, termites, or foundational harms with the intention of are not without demur apparent. This is a bit the evaluator won’t stain all through his 15 transcription by the property. just the once you find these three ID hooked on the hands of the bank’s home evaluator likelihood are elevated with the intention of the bank’s BPO comes all the rage chummy headed for your home appraisal value. at what time you acquire a nice home appraisal value in addition to expense estimates taking place with the intention of short sale property. You’ll boast armed physically together with the greatest tools popular influential the side headed for admit your subdued short sale offer. settle on positive extra in rank around valid estate shortsaling by the side of valid Estate Investor.com. This is the position headed for shot representing the hottest valid estate newscast then advice. You’ll attain a exchange ideas of additional valid estate investors complete headed for stop you out, beside in the midst of uncontrolled articles, blogs, contracts next ID representing your manipulate
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Article Source: Business Loans Women
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Article Source: Business Loans Women
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Chinese language
Spoken Chinese
Main article: Spoken Chinese
A map below depicts the linguistic subdivisions ("languages" or "dialect groups") within China itself. The traditionally-recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are:
Name
Abbreviation
Pinyin
Local Romanization
Simp.
Trad.
Total
Speakers
Mandarin
Notes: includes Standard Mandarin
Guan; Gunhu
Pinyin: Gunhu
c. 850 million
Bifnghu
Pinyin: Bifnghu
Wu
Notes: includes Shanghainese
Wu; Wy
Long-short: Ng nyiu
c. 90 million
Yue
Notes: includes Cantonese & Taishanese
Yue; Yuy
Jyutping: Jyut6 jyu5;
Yale: Yuht yh
c. 80 million
Min
Notes: includes Taiwanese & Teochew
Min; Mny
POJ: Bn g;
BUC: Mng ng
c. 50 million
Xiang
Xiang; Xingy
Romanization: Shien'
c. 35 million
Hakka
Kejia; Kjihu
Hakka Pinyin: Hak-k-fa or Hak-k-va
c. 35 million
Khu
Hakka Pinyin: Hak-fa or Hak-va
Gan
Gan; Gny
Romanization: Gon
c. 20 million
Disputed classifications by some Chinese linguists:
Name
Abbreviation
Pinyin
Local Romanization
Simp.
Trad.
Total
Speakers
Jin
Notes: from Mandarin
Jin; Jny
None
45 million
Huizhou
Notes: from Wu
Hui; Huzhuhu
None
~3.2 million
Pinghua
Notes: from Cantonese
Ping; Gungx Pnghu
None
~5 million
There are also some smaller groups that are not yet classified, such as: Danzhou dialect (), spoken in Danzhou, on Hainan Island; Xianghua (), not to be confused with Xiang (), spoken in western Hunan; and Shaozhou Tuhua (), spoken in northern Guangdong. The Dungan language, spoken in Central Asia, is very closely related to Mandarin. However, it is not generally considered "Chinese" since it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by Dungan people outside China who are not considered ethnic Chinese. See List of Chinese dialects for a comprehensive listing of individual dialects within these large, broad groupings.
In general, the above language-dialect groups do not have sharp boundaries, though Mandarin is the predominant Sinitic language in the North and the Southwest, and the rest are mostly spoken in Central or Southeastern China. Frequently, as in the case of the Guangdong province, native speakers of major variants overlapped. As with many areas that were linguistically diverse for a long time, it is not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified. The Ethnologue lists a total of 14, but the number varies between seven and seventeen depending on the classification scheme followed. For instance, the Min variety is often divided into Northern Min (Minbei, Fuchow) and Southern Min (Minnan, Amoy-Swatow); linguists have not determined whether their mutual intelligibility is small enough to sort them as separate languages.
In general, mountainous South China displays more linguistic diversity than the flat North China. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbours. For instance, Wuzhou is about 120 miles upstream from Guangzhou, but its dialect is more like Standard Cantonese spoken in Guangzhou, than is that of Taishan, 60 miles southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers from it (Ramsey, 1987).
Standard Mandarin and diglossia
Main article: Standard Mandarin
Putonghua / Guoyu, often called "Mandarin", is the official standard language used by the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China, and Singapore (where it is called "Huayu"). It is based on the Beijing dialect, which is the dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. The government intends for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools.
In mainland China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature: it is common for a Chinese to be able to speak two or even three varieties of the Sinitic languages (or ialects) together with Standard Mandarin. For example, in addition to putonghua a resident of Shanghai might speak Shanghainese and, if they did not grow up there, his or her local dialect as well. A native of Guangzhou may speak Standard Cantonese and putonghua, a resident of Taiwan, both Taiwanese and putonghua/guoyu. A person living in Taiwan may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Standard Mandarin and Taiwanese, and this mixture is considered normal under many circumstances. In Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin is beginning to take its place beside English and Standard Cantonese, the official languages.
Linguistics
Main article: Identification of the varieties of Chinese
Linguists often view Chinese as a language family, though owing to China's socio-political and cultural situation, and the fact that all spoken varieties use one common written system, it is customary to refer to these generally mutually unintelligible variants as "the Chinese language". The diversity of Sinitic variants is comparable to the Romance languages.
From a purely descriptive point of view, "languages" and "dialects" are simply arbitrary groups of similar idiolects, and the distinction is irrelevant to linguists who are only concerned with describing regional speeches technically. However, the idea of a single language has major overtones in politics and cultural self-identity, and explains the amount of emotion over this issue. Most Chinese and Chinese linguists refer to Chinese as a single language and its subdivisions dialects, while others call Chinese a language family.
Chinese itself has a term for its unified writing system, Zhongwen (), while the closest equivalent used to describe its spoken variants would be Hanyu (, poken language[s] of the Han Chinese)his term could be translated to either anguage or anguages since Chinese possesses no grammatical numbers. In the Chinese language, there is much less need for a uniform speech-and-writing continuum, as indicated by two separate character morphemes yu and wen. Ethnic Chinese often consider these spoken variations as one single language for reasons of nationality and as they inherit one common cultural and linguistic heritage in Classical Chinese. Han native speakers of Wu, Min, Hakka, and Cantonese, for instance, may consider their own linguistic varieties as separate spoken languages, but the Han Chinese race as onelbeit internally very diversethnicity. To Chinese nationalists, the idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that the Chinese identity is much more fragmentary and disunified than it actually is and as such is often looked upon as culturally and politically provocative. Additionally, in Taiwan, it is closely associated with Taiwanese independence, where some supporters of Taiwanese independence promote the local Taiwanese Minnan-based spoken language.
Within the People Republic of China and Singapore, it is common for the government to refer to all divisions of the Sinitic language(s) beside Standard Mandarin as fangyan (egional tongues, often translated as ialects). Modern-day Chinese speakers of all kinds communicate using one formal standard written language, although this modern written standard is modeled after Mandarin, generally the modern Beijing dialect.
Language and nationality
The term sinophone, coined in analogy to anglophone and francophone, refers to those who speak the Chinese language natively, or prefer it as a medium of communication. The term is derived from Sinae, the Latin word for ancient China.
Written Chinese
Main article: Written Chinese
Chinese characters evolved over time from earlier forms of hieroglyphs. The idea that all Chinese characters are either pictographs or ideographs is an erroneous one: most characters contain phonetic parts, and are composites of phonetic components and semantic radicals. Only the simplest characters, such as ren (human), ri (sun), shan (mountain), shui (water), may be wholly pictorial in origin. In 100 CE, the famed scholar X Shn in the Hn Dynasty classified characters into six categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, and 8090% as phonetic complexes consisting of a semantic element that indicates meaning, and a phonetic element that indicates the pronunciation. Generally, the phonetic element is more accurate and more important than the semantic one.[citation needed] There are about 214 radicals recognized in the Kangxi Dictionary.
Modern characters are styled after the standard script ( kish) (see styles, below). Various other written styles are also used in East Asian calligraphy, including seal script ( zhunsh), cursive script ( cosh) and clerical script ( lsh). Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.
Various styles of Chinese calligraphy.
There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system, still used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau and Chinese speaking communities (except Singapore and Malaysia) outside mainland China, takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The Simplified Chinese character system, developed by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common caoshu shorthand variants.
Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, is the firstnd at present the onlyoreign nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading the alternative system, be it traditional or simplified.
A well-educated Chinese today recognizes approximately 6,000-7,000 characters; some 3,000 characters are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. A large unabridged dictionary, like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; less than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.
History
History of China
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 21001600 BCE
Shang Dynasty 16001046 BCE
Zhou Dynasty 1045256 BCE
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn Period
   Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE206 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE220 CE
 Western Han
 Xin Dynasty
 Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220280
 Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265420
 Western Jin
16 Kingdoms
304439
 Eastern Jin
Southern & Northern Dynasties
420589
Sui Dynasty 581618
Tang Dynasty 618907
 ( Second Zhou 690705 )
5 Dynasties &
10 Kingdoms
907960
Liao Dynasty
9071125
Song Dynasty
9601279
 Northern Song
W. Xia
 Southern Song
Jin
Yuan Dynasty 12711368
Ming Dynasty 13681644
Qing Dynasty 16441911
MODERN
Republic of China 19121949
People's Republic
of China
1949resent
Republic
of China
(Taiwan)
1945resent
Related articlesÂ
Chinese historiography
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Linguistic history
Art history
Economic history
Education history
Science and technology history
Legal history
Media history
Military history
Naval history
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Main article: History of the Chinese language
Most linguists classify all varieties of modern spoken Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and believe that there was an original language, termed Proto-Sino-Tibetan, from which the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages descended. The relation between Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages is an area of active research, as is the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main difficulty in this effort is that, while there is enough documentation to allow one to reconstruct the ancient Chinese sounds, there is no written documentation that records the division between Proto-Sino-Tibetan and ancient Chinese. In addition, many of the older languages that would allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan are very poorly understood and many of the techniques developed for analysis of the descent of the (fusional) Indo-European languages from PIE do not apply to Chinese, an isolating language because of "morphological paucity" especially after Old Chinese.
Categorization of the development of Chinese is a subject of scholarly debate. One of the first systems was devised by the Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren in the early 1900s; most present systems rely heavily on Karlgren's insights and methods.
Old Chinese, sometimes known as "Archaic Chinese", was the language common during the early and middle Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE256 BCE), texts of which include inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the poetry of the Shjng, the history of the Shjng, and portions of the Yjng (I Ching). The phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters provide hints to their Old Chinese pronunciations. The pronunciation of the borrowed Chinese characters in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable insights. Old Chinese was not wholly uninflected. It possessed a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing differentiated the consonants, but probably was still without tones. Work on reconstructing Old Chinese started with Qng dynasty philologists. Some early Indo-European loan-words in Chinese have been proposed, notably m "honey", sh "lion," and perhaps also m "horse", qun "dog", and "goose". The source says the reconstructions of old Chinese are tentative, and not definitive so no conclusions should be drawn. The reconstruction of Old Chinese can not be perfect so this hypothesis may be called into question. The source also notes that southern dialects of Chinese have more monosyllabic words than the Mandarin Chinese dialects.
Middle Chinese was the language used during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Su, Tng, and Sng dynasties (6th through 10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the "Qiyn" rime book (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by the "Gungyn" rime book. Linguists are more confident of having reconstructed how Middle Chinese sounded. The evidence for the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transliterations, "rhyming tables" constructed by ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system, and Chinese phonetic translations of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative; some scholars have argued that trying to reconstruct, say, modern Cantonese from modern Cantopop rhymes would give a fairly inaccurate picture of the present-day spoken language.
The development of the spoken Chinese languages from early historical times to the present has been complex. Most Chinese people, in Schun and in a broad arc from the northeast (Manchuria) to the southwest (Yunnan), use various Mandarin dialects as their home language. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely due to north China's plains. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of middle and southern China promoted linguistic diversity.
Until the mid-20th century, most southern Chinese only spoke their native local variety of Chinese. As Nanjing was the capital during the early Ming Dynasty, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant at least until the later years of the Qing Dynasty. Since the 17th century, the Qing Dynasty had set up orthoepy academies (; Zhngyn Shyun) to make pronunciation conform to the standard of the capital Beijing. For the general population, however, this had limited effect. The non-Mandarin speakers in southern China also continued to use their various languages for every aspect of life. The Beijing Mandarin court standard was used solely by officials and civil servants and was thus fairly limited.
This situation did not change until the mid-20th century with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC, but not in Hong Kong) of a compulsory educational system committed to teaching Standard Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken by virtually all young and middle-aged citizens of mainland China and on Taiwan. Standard Cantonese, not Mandarin, was used in Hong Kong during the time of its British colonial period (owing to its large Cantonese native and migrant populace) and remains today its official language of education, formal speech, and daily life, but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential after the 1997 handover.
Classical Chinese was once the lingua franca in neighbouring East Asian countries such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam for centuries, before the rise of European influences in 19th century.
Influences on other languages
Throughout history Chinese culture and politics has had a great influence on unrelated languages such as Korean and Japanese. Korean and Japanese both have writing systems employing Chinese characters (Hanzi), which are called Hanja and Kanji, respectively.
The Vietnamese term for Chinese writing is Hn t. It was the only available method for writing Vietnamese until the 14th century, used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese lites. From the 14th to the late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with Ch nm, a modified Chinese script incorporating sounds and syllables for native Vietnamese speakers. Ch nm was completely replaced by a modified Latin script created by the Jesuit missionary priest Alexander de Rhodes, which incorporates a system of diacritical marks to indicate tones, as well as modified consonants. Approximately 60% of the modern Vietnamese lexicon is recognized as Hn-Vi (Sino-Vietnamese), the majority of which was borrowed from Middle Chinese.
In South Korea, the Hangul alphabet is generally used, but Hanja is used as a sort of boldface. In North Korea, Hanja has been discontinued. Since the modernization of Japan in the late 19th century, there has been debate about abandoning the use of Chinese characters, but the practical benefits of a radically new script have so far not been considered sufficient.
In derived Chinese characters or Zhuang logograms to write songs, even though Zhuang is not a Chinese dialect. Since the 1950s, the Zhuang language has been written in a modified Latin alphabet.
Languages within the influence of Chinese culture also have a very large number of loanwords from Chinese. Fifty percent or more of Korean vocabulary is of Chinese origin, likewise for a significant percentage of Japanese and Vietnamese vocabulary. Chinese has also lent a great deal of many grammatical features to these and neighboring languages, notably the lack of gender and the use of classifiers.[citation needed]
Loan words from Chinese also exist in European languages such as English. Examples of such words are "tea" from the Minnan pronunciation of (POJ: t), "ketchup" from the Minnan pronunciation of (koe-tsiap), and "kumquat" from the Cantonese pronunciation of (kam kuat).
Phonology
For more specific information on phonology of Chinese see the respective main articles of each spoken variety.
The phonological structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus consisting of a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties) with an optional onset or coda consonant as well as a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and // can stand alone as their own syllable.
Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to /m/, /n/, //, /p/, /t/, /k/, or //. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Mandarin, are limited to only two, namely /n/ and //. Consonant clusters do not generally occur in either the onset or coda. The onset may be an affricate or a consonant followed by a semivowel, but these are not generally considered consonant clusters.
The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.
All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.
A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese are the four main tones of Standard Mandarin applied to the syllable "ma." The tones correspond to these five characters:
(m) "mother"igh level
(m) "hemp" or "torpid"igh rising
(m) "horse"ow falling-rising
(m) "scold"igh falling
(ma) "question particle"eutral
Listen to the tones
This is a recording of the four main tones. Fifth, or neutral, tone is not included.
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
Phonetic transcriptions
The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt describing the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some rudimentary Latin transcription systems, based on the Nanjing Mandarin dialect.
Romanization
Main article: Romanization of Chinese
Romanization is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese languages due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century.
Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is Hanyu Pinyin, often known simply as pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, and later adopted by Singapore (see Chinese language romanisation in Singapore) and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across America, Australia and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones for teaching new words. The Pinyin romanization is usually shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside.
The second-most common romanization system, the Wade-Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels, i.e. it is an Anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade-Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until recently was widely used in Taiwan.
When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade-Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade-Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Bijng (pinyin), and with Taipei than T'ai-pei (Wade-Giles).
Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison:
Mandarin Romanization Comparison
Characters
Wade-Giles
Hanyu Pinyin
Notes
Chung1-kuo
Zhnggu
"China"
Pei-ching1
Bijng
Capital of the People's Republic of China
T'ai-pei
Tibi
Capital of the Republic of China
Mao Tse-tung1
Mo Zdng
Former Communist Chinese leader
Chiang Chieh4-shih
Jing Jish
Former Nationalist Chinese leader (better known to English speakers as Chiang Kai-shek, with Cantonese pronunciation)
K'ung Tsu
Kng Z
"Confucius"
Other systems of romanization for Chinese include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale (invented during WWII for U.S. troops), as well as separate systems for Cantonese, Minnan, Hakka, and other Chinese languages or dialects.
Other phonetic transcriptions
Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of pre-modern forms of Chinese.
Zhuyin (also called bopomofo), a semi-syllabary is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation. Although bopomofo characters are reminiscent of katakana script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system. A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the zhuyin article. Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles:
Pinyin table
Zhuyin table
There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system.
Grammar and morphology
Main article: Chinese grammar
Modern Chinese has often been erroneously classed as a "monosyllabic" language. While most of the morphemes are single syllable, modern Chinese today is much less a monosyllabic language in that nouns, adjectives and verbs are largely di-syllabic. The tendency to create disyllabic words in the modern Chinese languages, particularly in Mandarin, has been particularly pronounced when compared to Classical Chinese. Classical Chinese is a highly isolating language, with each morpheme generally corresponding to a single syllable and a single character; Modern Chinese though, has the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character agglutination. In fact, some linguists argue that classifying modern Chinese as an isolating language is misleading, for this reason alone.
Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction which are the morphemes, the smallest blocks of the language. While many of these single-syllable morphemes ( z, in Chinese) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllabic compounds, known as c (), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese c (ord) can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.
For example:
Yun loud (traditional)
Yun loud (simplified)
Hanbaobao/Hanbao amburger (traditional)
Hanbaobao/Hanbao "hamburger" (simplified)
Wo , me
Ren eople
Diqiu arth (globosity)
Shandian ightning (traditional)
Shandian "lightning" (simplifed)
Meng ream (traditional)
Meng "dream" (simplified)
All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages, in that they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology.e., changes in form of a wordo indicate the word's function in a sentence. In other words, Chinese has few grammatical inflectionst possesses no tenses, no voices, no numbers (singular, plural; though there are plural markers, for example for personal pronouns), and only a few articles (i.e., equivalents to "the, a, an" in English). There is, however, a gender difference in the written language ( as "he" and as "she"), but it should be noted that this is a relatively new introduction to the Chinese language in the twentieth century.
They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like le , hai , yijing , etc.
Chinese features Subject Verb Object word order, and like many other languages in East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic-comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighbouring languages like Japanese and Korean. See Chinese classifiers for an extensive coverage of this subject.
Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping.
Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. See Chinese grammar for the grammar of Standard Mandarin (the standardized Chinese spoken language), and the articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars.
Tones and homophones
Official modern Mandarin has only 400 spoken monosyllables but over 10,000 written characters, so there are many homophones only distinguishable by the four tones. Even this is often not enough unless the context and exact phrase or c is identified.
The mono-syllable j, first tone in standard Mandarin, corresponds to the following characters: chicken, machine, basic, (to) hit, hunger, and sum. In speech, the glyphing of a monosyllable to its meaning must be determined by context or by relation to other morphemes (e.g. "some" as in the opposite of "none"). Native speakers may state which words or phrases their names are found in, for convenience of writing: Mngzi jio Jiyng, Jilng Jing de ji, Ynggu de yng "My name is Jiyng, the Jia for Jialing River and the ying for the short form in Chinese of UK."
Southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Hakka preserved more of the rimes of Middle Chinese and have more tones. The previous examples of j, for instance, for "stimulated", "chicken", and "machine", have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using jyutping): gik1, gai1, and gei1, respectively. For this reason, southern varieties tend to employ fewer multi-syllabic words.
Vocabulary
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The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 20,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are now commonly in use. However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words; since most Chinese words are made up of two or more different characters, there are many times more Chinese words than there are characters.
Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, an all-inclusive compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including bone oracle versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants.
The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volumed Hanyu Da Cidian, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters, and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms.
The latest 2007 5th edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian , an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 65,000 entries and defines 11,000 head characters.
Loanwords
See also: Translation of neologisms into Chinese and Transcription into Chinese characters
Like any other language, Chinese has absorbed a sizeable amount of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.
Words borrowed from along the Silk Road since Old Chinese include "grape," "pomegranate" and "lion." Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including "Buddha" and "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as "hutong." Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as "grape" (pto in Mandarin) generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pli, the liturgical languages of North India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as "ppa", the Chinese lute, or "cheese" or "yoghurt", but from exactly which Altaic source is not always entirely clear.
Modern borrowings and loanwords
Modern neologisms are translated into Chinese primarily in three ways: free translation (by meaning), phonetic translation (by sound) and a combination of the above two (partially transcriptive with a careful selection of meaning-encoding characters). Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words in order to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions. Any Latin or Greek etymologies are dropped and converted into the corresponding meaning-carrying Chinese characters (e.g. anti- typically becomes "", literally opposite), making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word telephone was loaned phonetically as (Shanghainese: tlfon [tlfo], Standard Mandarin: dlfng) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later the Japanese (dinhu "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent. Other examples include (dinsh "electric vision") for television, (dinno "electric brain") for computer; (shuj "hand machine") for cellphone, and (lny "blue tooth") for Bluetooth. (wng zh"internet logbook") for blog in Cantonese or people in Hong Kong and Macau. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as (hnbo bo, "Hamburg bun") for hamburger. Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes, such as (tulj, "tractor," literally "dragging-pulling machine"), or for the video game character Mario. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example (bntng "running leaping") for Pentium and (Sibiwi "better-than hundred tastes") for Subway restaurants.
Foreign words, mainly proper nouns (names of people, places), continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes (pinyin: ysli), "Paris" becomes (pinyin: bl). A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including shf "sofa," md "motor," yum "humor," luj "logic," shmo "smart, fashionable" and xisdl "hysterics." The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghainese dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, and in Shanghainese actually sound more like the English "sofa" and "motor."
Western foreign words have had great influence on Chinese language since the 20th century, through transcription. From French came (bli, "ballet"), (xingbn, "champagne"), via Italian (kfi, "caff"). The English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed .eg. the above-mentioned (shf "sofa"), (yum "humour"), and (gorf, "golf"). Later United States soft influences gave rise to (dsk, "disco"), (kl, "cola") and (mn, "mini(skirt)"). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English like cartoon (cartoon), (gay people), (taxi), (bus). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, eg. (fns, "fans"), (hik, "hacker", literally "black guest"), (blug, blog, literally "interconnected tribes") in Taiwanese Mandarin.
Another result of the English influence on Chinese is the appearance of the so called (Lettered-words) spelled in Modern Chinese texts with foreign alphabets letters. This has appeared in magazines, newspapers, on web-sites and on TV screen: 3rd generation cell phones (an three + generation + shou ji mobile phones), IT "IT environment", HSK (Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi ) , GB (guobiao ), CIF (Cost, Insurance, Freight + jia4 price); e 'Electronic home' ( jia1ting1 ome); W 'Wireless generation'( shi2dai4 eneration); call, TV, 'post PC era' ( hou after/post + PC ersonal computer + shi dai epoch), etc.
Since the 20th century, another source has been Japan. Using existing kanji, which are Chinese characters used in the Japanese language, the Japanese re-moulded European concepts and inventions into wasei-kango (, literally Japanese-made Chinese), and re-loaned many of these into modern Chinese. Examples include dinhu (, denwa, "telephone"), shhu (, shakai, "society"), kxu (, kagaku, "science") and chuxing (, chsh, "abstract"). Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, jngj (, keizai), which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state", was narrowed to "economy" in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this toing-and-froing process, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese share a corpus linguistic of terms describing modern terminology, in parallel to a similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin terms shared among European languages.
Learning Chinese
See also: Chinese as a Foreign or Second Language
With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Mandarin instruction is gaining popularity in schools in the USA, and has become an increasingly popular subject of study amongst the young in the Western world, as in the UK.
In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test (comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate), while in 2005, the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660.
See also
China portal
Chinese characters
Chinese exclamative particles
Chinese honorifics
Chinese classifier
Chinese number gestures
Chinese numerals
Chinese punctuation
Classical Chinese grammar
Four-character idiom
Han unification
Haner language
HSK test
Languages of China
North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics
N shu
References
DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6.Â
Hannas, William C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X.Â
Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29653-6.Â
Qiu, Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7.Â
Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01468-X.Â
Footnotes
^ http://www.china-language.gov.cn/ (Chinese)
^ http://mandarin.org.sg/html/home.htm[dead link]
^ *David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) , p. 312. he mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages.
Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p 2. he Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.
Jerry Norman. Chinese (1988), p.1. he modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of language.
John DeFrancis. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy (1984), p.56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China."
^ Mair, Victor H. (1991). "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic Terms" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf.Â
^ Analysis of the concept "wave" in PST.
^ Encyclopedia Britannica s.v. "Chinese languages": "Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for oney' and ion,' and probably also orse,' og,' and oose,' are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) A number of words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong-Vietnamese and Mon-Khmer"; Jan Ulenbrook, Einige bereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (1967) proposes 57 items; see also Tsung-tung Chang, 1988 Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese;.
^ *Sheng Ding and Robert A. Saunders, Talking Up China: An Analysis of China's Rising Cultural Power and Global Promotion of the Chinese Language EASTASIA, Summer 2006, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 4
^ Zhou, Minglang: Multilingualism in China: The Politics of Writing Reforms for Minority Languages, 1949-2002 (Walter de Gruyter 2003); ISBN 3-11-017896-6; p. 251258.
^ DeFrancis (1984) p.42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English; London, p.15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English.
^ BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | How hard is it to learn Chinese?
^ (Chinese) "200512", Xinhua News Agency, January 16, 2006.
Further reading
ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary. Editor: John de Francis. (2003) University of Hawai Press. ISBN 0-8248-2766-X.
ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Axel Schuessler. 2007. University of Hawai Press, Honolulu. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9.
External links
Chinese language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Keys to the Chinese Language: Book IIoogle Books
v  d  e
Chinese language(s)
Spoken varieties
Major Subdivisions
Mandarin
Northeastern Jilu Jiao-Liao Zhongyuan Southwestern Lanyin Jianghuai Taiwanese Mandarin Beijing Dungan Xuzhou Luoyang Jinan Karamay Nanking Sichuanese Kunming Shenyang Harbin Qingdao Guanzhong Dalian Weihai
Wu
Chuqu Taihu Hangzhou Ningbo Quzhou Shanghainese Suzhou Changzhou Wenzhou Wuxi Taizhou Jiangyin Qihai Jiangshan Qingtian Jinxiang
Yue
Cantonese Gaoyang Siyi Goulou Wuhua Yongxun Luoguang Qinlian Guanbao Haihua Tanka Taishan
Min
Min Bei Min Dong Min Nan Min Zhong Puxian Qiong Wen Taiwanese Minnan Teochew Jian'ou Hokkien Haifeng Zhenan Longyan Fuzhou Zhanjiang Leizhou Nanlang Zhongshan Sanxiang Zhangzhou Quanzhou Amoy Shantou
Xiang
Changsha Shuangfeng
Hakka
Dapeng Yuantang
Gan
Chang Jing Ying Yi Yi Liu Da Tong
Disputed
Huizhou Jin Pinghua Hohhot Danzhou
Unclassified
Xianghua Yuebei Tuhua Linghua
Ausbausprachen
Standard Mandarin
Phonology
Historical Cantonese Mandarin
History
Old Chinese Middle Chinese Proto-Min Proto-Gan Proto-Mandarin Haner
Written varieties
Official
Classical Vernacular
Other
Vernacular Cantonese Vernacular Donggan Vernacular Minnan
List of Chinese dialects Identification of Chinese language varieties
v  d  e
Chinese language loan vocabularies
Sino-Japanese Sino-Korean Sino-Vietnamese
v  d  e
Languages of Asia
Sovereign
states
Afghanistan Armenia1 Azerbaijan1 Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Burma2 Cambodia People's Republic of China Cyprus1 East Timor3 Egypt4 Georgia4 India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan4 North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia4 Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Republic of China5 Thailand Turkey4 Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen
States with limited
recognition
Abkhazia1 Nagorno-Karabakh Northern Cyprus Palestine South Ossetia1Â
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories
Aceh Adjara1 Akrotiri and Dhekelia Altai British Indian Ocean Territory Buryatia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Guangxi Hong Kong Inner Mongolia Iraqi Kurdistan Khakassia Macau Nakhchivan Ningxia Papua Sakha Republic Tibet Tuva West Papua XinjiangÂ
1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions. 2 Officially known as Myanmar. 3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste. 4 Transcontinental country. 5 Commonly known as Taiwan.Â
v  d  e
Official languages of the United Nations
Arabic Chinese English French Russian Spanish
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Main article: Spoken Chinese
A map below depicts the linguistic subdivisions ("languages" or "dialect groups") within China itself. The traditionally-recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are:
Name
Abbreviation
Pinyin
Local Romanization
Simp.
Trad.
Total
Speakers
Mandarin
Notes: includes Standard Mandarin
Guan; Gunhu
Pinyin: Gunhu
c. 850 million
Bifnghu
Pinyin: Bifnghu
Wu
Notes: includes Shanghainese
Wu; Wy
Long-short: Ng nyiu
c. 90 million
Yue
Notes: includes Cantonese & Taishanese
Yue; Yuy
Jyutping: Jyut6 jyu5;
Yale: Yuht yh
c. 80 million
Min
Notes: includes Taiwanese & Teochew
Min; Mny
POJ: Bn g;
BUC: Mng ng
c. 50 million
Xiang
Xiang; Xingy
Romanization: Shien'
c. 35 million
Hakka
Kejia; Kjihu
Hakka Pinyin: Hak-k-fa or Hak-k-va
c. 35 million
Khu
Hakka Pinyin: Hak-fa or Hak-va
Gan
Gan; Gny
Romanization: Gon
c. 20 million
Disputed classifications by some Chinese linguists:
Name
Abbreviation
Pinyin
Local Romanization
Simp.
Trad.
Total
Speakers
Jin
Notes: from Mandarin
Jin; Jny
None
45 million
Huizhou
Notes: from Wu
Hui; Huzhuhu
None
~3.2 million
Pinghua
Notes: from Cantonese
Ping; Gungx Pnghu
None
~5 million
There are also some smaller groups that are not yet classified, such as: Danzhou dialect (), spoken in Danzhou, on Hainan Island; Xianghua (), not to be confused with Xiang (), spoken in western Hunan; and Shaozhou Tuhua (), spoken in northern Guangdong. The Dungan language, spoken in Central Asia, is very closely related to Mandarin. However, it is not generally considered "Chinese" since it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by Dungan people outside China who are not considered ethnic Chinese. See List of Chinese dialects for a comprehensive listing of individual dialects within these large, broad groupings.
In general, the above language-dialect groups do not have sharp boundaries, though Mandarin is the predominant Sinitic language in the North and the Southwest, and the rest are mostly spoken in Central or Southeastern China. Frequently, as in the case of the Guangdong province, native speakers of major variants overlapped. As with many areas that were linguistically diverse for a long time, it is not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified. The Ethnologue lists a total of 14, but the number varies between seven and seventeen depending on the classification scheme followed. For instance, the Min variety is often divided into Northern Min (Minbei, Fuchow) and Southern Min (Minnan, Amoy-Swatow); linguists have not determined whether their mutual intelligibility is small enough to sort them as separate languages.
In general, mountainous South China displays more linguistic diversity than the flat North China. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbours. For instance, Wuzhou is about 120 miles upstream from Guangzhou, but its dialect is more like Standard Cantonese spoken in Guangzhou, than is that of Taishan, 60 miles southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers from it (Ramsey, 1987).
Standard Mandarin and diglossia
Main article: Standard Mandarin
Putonghua / Guoyu, often called "Mandarin", is the official standard language used by the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China, and Singapore (where it is called "Huayu"). It is based on the Beijing dialect, which is the dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. The government intends for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools.
In mainland China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature: it is common for a Chinese to be able to speak two or even three varieties of the Sinitic languages (or ialects) together with Standard Mandarin. For example, in addition to putonghua a resident of Shanghai might speak Shanghainese and, if they did not grow up there, his or her local dialect as well. A native of Guangzhou may speak Standard Cantonese and putonghua, a resident of Taiwan, both Taiwanese and putonghua/guoyu. A person living in Taiwan may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Standard Mandarin and Taiwanese, and this mixture is considered normal under many circumstances. In Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin is beginning to take its place beside English and Standard Cantonese, the official languages.
Linguistics
Main article: Identification of the varieties of Chinese
Linguists often view Chinese as a language family, though owing to China's socio-political and cultural situation, and the fact that all spoken varieties use one common written system, it is customary to refer to these generally mutually unintelligible variants as "the Chinese language". The diversity of Sinitic variants is comparable to the Romance languages.
From a purely descriptive point of view, "languages" and "dialects" are simply arbitrary groups of similar idiolects, and the distinction is irrelevant to linguists who are only concerned with describing regional speeches technically. However, the idea of a single language has major overtones in politics and cultural self-identity, and explains the amount of emotion over this issue. Most Chinese and Chinese linguists refer to Chinese as a single language and its subdivisions dialects, while others call Chinese a language family.
Chinese itself has a term for its unified writing system, Zhongwen (), while the closest equivalent used to describe its spoken variants would be Hanyu (, poken language[s] of the Han Chinese)his term could be translated to either anguage or anguages since Chinese possesses no grammatical numbers. In the Chinese language, there is much less need for a uniform speech-and-writing continuum, as indicated by two separate character morphemes yu and wen. Ethnic Chinese often consider these spoken variations as one single language for reasons of nationality and as they inherit one common cultural and linguistic heritage in Classical Chinese. Han native speakers of Wu, Min, Hakka, and Cantonese, for instance, may consider their own linguistic varieties as separate spoken languages, but the Han Chinese race as onelbeit internally very diversethnicity. To Chinese nationalists, the idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that the Chinese identity is much more fragmentary and disunified than it actually is and as such is often looked upon as culturally and politically provocative. Additionally, in Taiwan, it is closely associated with Taiwanese independence, where some supporters of Taiwanese independence promote the local Taiwanese Minnan-based spoken language.
Within the People Republic of China and Singapore, it is common for the government to refer to all divisions of the Sinitic language(s) beside Standard Mandarin as fangyan (egional tongues, often translated as ialects). Modern-day Chinese speakers of all kinds communicate using one formal standard written language, although this modern written standard is modeled after Mandarin, generally the modern Beijing dialect.
Language and nationality
The term sinophone, coined in analogy to anglophone and francophone, refers to those who speak the Chinese language natively, or prefer it as a medium of communication. The term is derived from Sinae, the Latin word for ancient China.
Written Chinese
Main article: Written Chinese
Chinese characters evolved over time from earlier forms of hieroglyphs. The idea that all Chinese characters are either pictographs or ideographs is an erroneous one: most characters contain phonetic parts, and are composites of phonetic components and semantic radicals. Only the simplest characters, such as ren (human), ri (sun), shan (mountain), shui (water), may be wholly pictorial in origin. In 100 CE, the famed scholar X Shn in the Hn Dynasty classified characters into six categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, and 8090% as phonetic complexes consisting of a semantic element that indicates meaning, and a phonetic element that indicates the pronunciation. Generally, the phonetic element is more accurate and more important than the semantic one.[citation needed] There are about 214 radicals recognized in the Kangxi Dictionary.
Modern characters are styled after the standard script ( kish) (see styles, below). Various other written styles are also used in East Asian calligraphy, including seal script ( zhunsh), cursive script ( cosh) and clerical script ( lsh). Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.
Various styles of Chinese calligraphy.
There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system, still used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau and Chinese speaking communities (except Singapore and Malaysia) outside mainland China, takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The Simplified Chinese character system, developed by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common caoshu shorthand variants.
Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, is the firstnd at present the onlyoreign nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading the alternative system, be it traditional or simplified.
A well-educated Chinese today recognizes approximately 6,000-7,000 characters; some 3,000 characters are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. A large unabridged dictionary, like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; less than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.
History
History of China
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 21001600 BCE
Shang Dynasty 16001046 BCE
Zhou Dynasty 1045256 BCE
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn Period
   Warring States Period
IMPERIAL
Qin Dynasty 221 BCE206 BCE
Han Dynasty 206 BCE220 CE
 Western Han
 Xin Dynasty
 Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220280
 Wei, Shu & Wu
Jin Dynasty 265420
 Western Jin
16 Kingdoms
304439
 Eastern Jin
Southern & Northern Dynasties
420589
Sui Dynasty 581618
Tang Dynasty 618907
 ( Second Zhou 690705 )
5 Dynasties &
10 Kingdoms
907960
Liao Dynasty
9071125
Song Dynasty
9601279
 Northern Song
W. Xia
 Southern Song
Jin
Yuan Dynasty 12711368
Ming Dynasty 13681644
Qing Dynasty 16441911
MODERN
Republic of China 19121949
People's Republic
of China
1949resent
Republic
of China
(Taiwan)
1945resent
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Chinese historiography
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Linguistic history
Art history
Economic history
Education history
Science and technology history
Legal history
Media history
Military history
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Main article: History of the Chinese language
Most linguists classify all varieties of modern spoken Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and believe that there was an original language, termed Proto-Sino-Tibetan, from which the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages descended. The relation between Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages is an area of active research, as is the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main difficulty in this effort is that, while there is enough documentation to allow one to reconstruct the ancient Chinese sounds, there is no written documentation that records the division between Proto-Sino-Tibetan and ancient Chinese. In addition, many of the older languages that would allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan are very poorly understood and many of the techniques developed for analysis of the descent of the (fusional) Indo-European languages from PIE do not apply to Chinese, an isolating language because of "morphological paucity" especially after Old Chinese.
Categorization of the development of Chinese is a subject of scholarly debate. One of the first systems was devised by the Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren in the early 1900s; most present systems rely heavily on Karlgren's insights and methods.
Old Chinese, sometimes known as "Archaic Chinese", was the language common during the early and middle Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE256 BCE), texts of which include inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the poetry of the Shjng, the history of the Shjng, and portions of the Yjng (I Ching). The phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters provide hints to their Old Chinese pronunciations. The pronunciation of the borrowed Chinese characters in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable insights. Old Chinese was not wholly uninflected. It possessed a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing differentiated the consonants, but probably was still without tones. Work on reconstructing Old Chinese started with Qng dynasty philologists. Some early Indo-European loan-words in Chinese have been proposed, notably m "honey", sh "lion," and perhaps also m "horse", qun "dog", and "goose". The source says the reconstructions of old Chinese are tentative, and not definitive so no conclusions should be drawn. The reconstruction of Old Chinese can not be perfect so this hypothesis may be called into question. The source also notes that southern dialects of Chinese have more monosyllabic words than the Mandarin Chinese dialects.
Middle Chinese was the language used during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Su, Tng, and Sng dynasties (6th through 10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the "Qiyn" rime book (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by the "Gungyn" rime book. Linguists are more confident of having reconstructed how Middle Chinese sounded. The evidence for the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transliterations, "rhyming tables" constructed by ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system, and Chinese phonetic translations of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative; some scholars have argued that trying to reconstruct, say, modern Cantonese from modern Cantopop rhymes would give a fairly inaccurate picture of the present-day spoken language.
The development of the spoken Chinese languages from early historical times to the present has been complex. Most Chinese people, in Schun and in a broad arc from the northeast (Manchuria) to the southwest (Yunnan), use various Mandarin dialects as their home language. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely due to north China's plains. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of middle and southern China promoted linguistic diversity.
Until the mid-20th century, most southern Chinese only spoke their native local variety of Chinese. As Nanjing was the capital during the early Ming Dynasty, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant at least until the later years of the Qing Dynasty. Since the 17th century, the Qing Dynasty had set up orthoepy academies (; Zhngyn Shyun) to make pronunciation conform to the standard of the capital Beijing. For the general population, however, this had limited effect. The non-Mandarin speakers in southern China also continued to use their various languages for every aspect of life. The Beijing Mandarin court standard was used solely by officials and civil servants and was thus fairly limited.
This situation did not change until the mid-20th century with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC, but not in Hong Kong) of a compulsory educational system committed to teaching Standard Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken by virtually all young and middle-aged citizens of mainland China and on Taiwan. Standard Cantonese, not Mandarin, was used in Hong Kong during the time of its British colonial period (owing to its large Cantonese native and migrant populace) and remains today its official language of education, formal speech, and daily life, but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential after the 1997 handover.
Classical Chinese was once the lingua franca in neighbouring East Asian countries such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam for centuries, before the rise of European influences in 19th century.
Influences on other languages
Throughout history Chinese culture and politics has had a great influence on unrelated languages such as Korean and Japanese. Korean and Japanese both have writing systems employing Chinese characters (Hanzi), which are called Hanja and Kanji, respectively.
The Vietnamese term for Chinese writing is Hn t. It was the only available method for writing Vietnamese until the 14th century, used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese lites. From the 14th to the late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with Ch nm, a modified Chinese script incorporating sounds and syllables for native Vietnamese speakers. Ch nm was completely replaced by a modified Latin script created by the Jesuit missionary priest Alexander de Rhodes, which incorporates a system of diacritical marks to indicate tones, as well as modified consonants. Approximately 60% of the modern Vietnamese lexicon is recognized as Hn-Vi (Sino-Vietnamese), the majority of which was borrowed from Middle Chinese.
In South Korea, the Hangul alphabet is generally used, but Hanja is used as a sort of boldface. In North Korea, Hanja has been discontinued. Since the modernization of Japan in the late 19th century, there has been debate about abandoning the use of Chinese characters, but the practical benefits of a radically new script have so far not been considered sufficient.
In derived Chinese characters or Zhuang logograms to write songs, even though Zhuang is not a Chinese dialect. Since the 1950s, the Zhuang language has been written in a modified Latin alphabet.
Languages within the influence of Chinese culture also have a very large number of loanwords from Chinese. Fifty percent or more of Korean vocabulary is of Chinese origin, likewise for a significant percentage of Japanese and Vietnamese vocabulary. Chinese has also lent a great deal of many grammatical features to these and neighboring languages, notably the lack of gender and the use of classifiers.[citation needed]
Loan words from Chinese also exist in European languages such as English. Examples of such words are "tea" from the Minnan pronunciation of (POJ: t), "ketchup" from the Minnan pronunciation of (koe-tsiap), and "kumquat" from the Cantonese pronunciation of (kam kuat).
Phonology
For more specific information on phonology of Chinese see the respective main articles of each spoken variety.
The phonological structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus consisting of a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties) with an optional onset or coda consonant as well as a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and // can stand alone as their own syllable.
Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to /m/, /n/, //, /p/, /t/, /k/, or //. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Mandarin, are limited to only two, namely /n/ and //. Consonant clusters do not generally occur in either the onset or coda. The onset may be an affricate or a consonant followed by a semivowel, but these are not generally considered consonant clusters.
The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.
All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese.
A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese are the four main tones of Standard Mandarin applied to the syllable "ma." The tones correspond to these five characters:
(m) "mother"igh level
(m) "hemp" or "torpid"igh rising
(m) "horse"ow falling-rising
(m) "scold"igh falling
(ma) "question particle"eutral
Listen to the tones
This is a recording of the four main tones. Fifth, or neutral, tone is not included.
Problems listening to this file? See media help.
Phonetic transcriptions
The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in Sanskrit and Pali, were the first to attempt describing the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some rudimentary Latin transcription systems, based on the Nanjing Mandarin dialect.
Romanization
Main article: Romanization of Chinese
Romanization is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese languages due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century.
Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is Hanyu Pinyin, often known simply as pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, and later adopted by Singapore (see Chinese language romanisation in Singapore) and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across America, Australia and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones for teaching new words. The Pinyin romanization is usually shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside.
The second-most common romanization system, the Wade-Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels, i.e. it is an Anglicization, it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade-Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until recently was widely used in Taiwan.
When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade-Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade-Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Bijng (pinyin), and with Taipei than T'ai-pei (Wade-Giles).
Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison:
Mandarin Romanization Comparison
Characters
Wade-Giles
Hanyu Pinyin
Notes
Chung1-kuo
Zhnggu
"China"
Pei-ching1
Bijng
Capital of the People's Republic of China
T'ai-pei
Tibi
Capital of the Republic of China
Mao Tse-tung1
Mo Zdng
Former Communist Chinese leader
Chiang Chieh4-shih
Jing Jish
Former Nationalist Chinese leader (better known to English speakers as Chiang Kai-shek, with Cantonese pronunciation)
K'ung Tsu
Kng Z
"Confucius"
Other systems of romanization for Chinese include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale (invented during WWII for U.S. troops), as well as separate systems for Cantonese, Minnan, Hakka, and other Chinese languages or dialects.
Other phonetic transcriptions
Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of pre-modern forms of Chinese.
Zhuyin (also called bopomofo), a semi-syllabary is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation. Although bopomofo characters are reminiscent of katakana script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system. A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the zhuyin article. Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles:
Pinyin table
Zhuyin table
There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system.
Grammar and morphology
Main article: Chinese grammar
Modern Chinese has often been erroneously classed as a "monosyllabic" language. While most of the morphemes are single syllable, modern Chinese today is much less a monosyllabic language in that nouns, adjectives and verbs are largely di-syllabic. The tendency to create disyllabic words in the modern Chinese languages, particularly in Mandarin, has been particularly pronounced when compared to Classical Chinese. Classical Chinese is a highly isolating language, with each morpheme generally corresponding to a single syllable and a single character; Modern Chinese though, has the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character agglutination. In fact, some linguists argue that classifying modern Chinese as an isolating language is misleading, for this reason alone.
Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction which are the morphemes, the smallest blocks of the language. While many of these single-syllable morphemes ( z, in Chinese) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllabic compounds, known as c (), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese c (ord) can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.
For example:
Yun loud (traditional)
Yun loud (simplified)
Hanbaobao/Hanbao amburger (traditional)
Hanbaobao/Hanbao "hamburger" (simplified)
Wo , me
Ren eople
Diqiu arth (globosity)
Shandian ightning (traditional)
Shandian "lightning" (simplifed)
Meng ream (traditional)
Meng "dream" (simplified)
All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages, in that they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology.e., changes in form of a wordo indicate the word's function in a sentence. In other words, Chinese has few grammatical inflectionst possesses no tenses, no voices, no numbers (singular, plural; though there are plural markers, for example for personal pronouns), and only a few articles (i.e., equivalents to "the, a, an" in English). There is, however, a gender difference in the written language ( as "he" and as "she"), but it should be noted that this is a relatively new introduction to the Chinese language in the twentieth century.
They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like le , hai , yijing , etc.
Chinese features Subject Verb Object word order, and like many other languages in East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic-comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighbouring languages like Japanese and Korean. See Chinese classifiers for an extensive coverage of this subject.
Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping.
Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. See Chinese grammar for the grammar of Standard Mandarin (the standardized Chinese spoken language), and the articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars.
Tones and homophones
Official modern Mandarin has only 400 spoken monosyllables but over 10,000 written characters, so there are many homophones only distinguishable by the four tones. Even this is often not enough unless the context and exact phrase or c is identified.
The mono-syllable j, first tone in standard Mandarin, corresponds to the following characters: chicken, machine, basic, (to) hit, hunger, and sum. In speech, the glyphing of a monosyllable to its meaning must be determined by context or by relation to other morphemes (e.g. "some" as in the opposite of "none"). Native speakers may state which words or phrases their names are found in, for convenience of writing: Mngzi jio Jiyng, Jilng Jing de ji, Ynggu de yng "My name is Jiyng, the Jia for Jialing River and the ying for the short form in Chinese of UK."
Southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Hakka preserved more of the rimes of Middle Chinese and have more tones. The previous examples of j, for instance, for "stimulated", "chicken", and "machine", have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using jyutping): gik1, gai1, and gei1, respectively. For this reason, southern varieties tend to employ fewer multi-syllabic words.
Vocabulary
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The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 20,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are now commonly in use. However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words; since most Chinese words are made up of two or more different characters, there are many times more Chinese words than there are characters.
Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, an all-inclusive compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including bone oracle versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants.
The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volumed Hanyu Da Cidian, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters, and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms.
The latest 2007 5th edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian , an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 65,000 entries and defines 11,000 head characters.
Loanwords
See also: Translation of neologisms into Chinese and Transcription into Chinese characters
Like any other language, Chinese has absorbed a sizeable amount of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.
Words borrowed from along the Silk Road since Old Chinese include "grape," "pomegranate" and "lion." Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including "Buddha" and "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as "hutong." Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as "grape" (pto in Mandarin) generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pli, the liturgical languages of North India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as "ppa", the Chinese lute, or "cheese" or "yoghurt", but from exactly which Altaic source is not always entirely clear.
Modern borrowings and loanwords
Modern neologisms are translated into Chinese primarily in three ways: free translation (by meaning), phonetic translation (by sound) and a combination of the above two (partially transcriptive with a careful selection of meaning-encoding characters). Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words in order to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions. Any Latin or Greek etymologies are dropped and converted into the corresponding meaning-carrying Chinese characters (e.g. anti- typically becomes "", literally opposite), making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word telephone was loaned phonetically as (Shanghainese: tlfon [tlfo], Standard Mandarin: dlfng) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later the Japanese (dinhu "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent. Other examples include (dinsh "electric vision") for television, (dinno "electric brain") for computer; (shuj "hand machine") for cellphone, and (lny "blue tooth") for Bluetooth. (wng zh"internet logbook") for blog in Cantonese or people in Hong Kong and Macau. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as (hnbo bo, "Hamburg bun") for hamburger. Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes, such as (tulj, "tractor," literally "dragging-pulling machine"), or for the video game character Mario. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example (bntng "running leaping") for Pentium and (Sibiwi "better-than hundred tastes") for Subway restaurants.
Foreign words, mainly proper nouns (names of people, places), continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes (pinyin: ysli), "Paris" becomes (pinyin: bl). A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including shf "sofa," md "motor," yum "humor," luj "logic," shmo "smart, fashionable" and xisdl "hysterics." The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghainese dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, and in Shanghainese actually sound more like the English "sofa" and "motor."
Western foreign words have had great influence on Chinese language since the 20th century, through transcription. From French came (bli, "ballet"), (xingbn, "champagne"), via Italian (kfi, "caff"). The English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed .eg. the above-mentioned (shf "sofa"), (yum "humour"), and (gorf, "golf"). Later United States soft influences gave rise to (dsk, "disco"), (kl, "cola") and (mn, "mini(skirt)"). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English like cartoon (cartoon), (gay people), (taxi), (bus). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, eg. (fns, "fans"), (hik, "hacker", literally "black guest"), (blug, blog, literally "interconnected tribes") in Taiwanese Mandarin.
Another result of the English influence on Chinese is the appearance of the so called (Lettered-words) spelled in Modern Chinese texts with foreign alphabets letters. This has appeared in magazines, newspapers, on web-sites and on TV screen: 3rd generation cell phones (an three + generation + shou ji mobile phones), IT "IT environment", HSK (Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi ) , GB (guobiao ), CIF (Cost, Insurance, Freight + jia4 price); e 'Electronic home' ( jia1ting1 ome); W 'Wireless generation'( shi2dai4 eneration); call, TV, 'post PC era' ( hou after/post + PC ersonal computer + shi dai epoch), etc.
Since the 20th century, another source has been Japan. Using existing kanji, which are Chinese characters used in the Japanese language, the Japanese re-moulded European concepts and inventions into wasei-kango (, literally Japanese-made Chinese), and re-loaned many of these into modern Chinese. Examples include dinhu (, denwa, "telephone"), shhu (, shakai, "society"), kxu (, kagaku, "science") and chuxing (, chsh, "abstract"). Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, jngj (, keizai), which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state", was narrowed to "economy" in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this toing-and-froing process, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese share a corpus linguistic of terms describing modern terminology, in parallel to a similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin terms shared among European languages.
Learning Chinese
See also: Chinese as a Foreign or Second Language
With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Mandarin instruction is gaining popularity in schools in the USA, and has become an increasingly popular subject of study amongst the young in the Western world, as in the UK.
In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test (comparable to the English Cambridge Certificate), while in 2005, the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660.
See also
China portal
Chinese characters
Chinese exclamative particles
Chinese honorifics
Chinese classifier
Chinese number gestures
Chinese numerals
Chinese punctuation
Classical Chinese grammar
Four-character idiom
Han unification
Haner language
HSK test
Languages of China
North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics
N shu
References
DeFrancis, John (1984). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6.Â
Hannas, William C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X.Â
Norman, Jerry (1988). Chinese. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29653-6.Â
Qiu, Xigui (2000). Chinese Writing. Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 1-55729-071-7.Â
Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01468-X.Â
Footnotes
^ http://www.china-language.gov.cn/ (Chinese)
^ http://mandarin.org.sg/html/home.htm[dead link]
^ *David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) , p. 312. he mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages.
Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p 2. he Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.
Jerry Norman. Chinese (1988), p.1. he modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of language.
John DeFrancis. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy (1984), p.56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China."
^ Mair, Victor H. (1991). "What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic Terms" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf.Â
^ Analysis of the concept "wave" in PST.
^ Encyclopedia Britannica s.v. "Chinese languages": "Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for oney' and ion,' and probably also orse,' og,' and oose,' are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) A number of words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong-Vietnamese and Mon-Khmer"; Jan Ulenbrook, Einige bereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (1967) proposes 57 items; see also Tsung-tung Chang, 1988 Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese;.
^ *Sheng Ding and Robert A. Saunders, Talking Up China: An Analysis of China's Rising Cultural Power and Global Promotion of the Chinese Language EASTASIA, Summer 2006, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 4
^ Zhou, Minglang: Multilingualism in China: The Politics of Writing Reforms for Minority Languages, 1949-2002 (Walter de Gruyter 2003); ISBN 3-11-017896-6; p. 251258.
^ DeFrancis (1984) p.42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English; London, p.15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English.
^ BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | How hard is it to learn Chinese?
^ (Chinese) "200512", Xinhua News Agency, January 16, 2006.
Further reading
ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary. Editor: John de Francis. (2003) University of Hawai Press. ISBN 0-8248-2766-X.
ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Axel Schuessler. 2007. University of Hawai Press, Honolulu. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9.
External links
Chinese language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Keys to the Chinese Language: Book IIoogle Books
v  d  e
Chinese language(s)
Spoken varieties
Major Subdivisions
Mandarin
Northeastern Jilu Jiao-Liao Zhongyuan Southwestern Lanyin Jianghuai Taiwanese Mandarin Beijing Dungan Xuzhou Luoyang Jinan Karamay Nanking Sichuanese Kunming Shenyang Harbin Qingdao Guanzhong Dalian Weihai
Wu
Chuqu Taihu Hangzhou Ningbo Quzhou Shanghainese Suzhou Changzhou Wenzhou Wuxi Taizhou Jiangyin Qihai Jiangshan Qingtian Jinxiang
Yue
Cantonese Gaoyang Siyi Goulou Wuhua Yongxun Luoguang Qinlian Guanbao Haihua Tanka Taishan
Min
Min Bei Min Dong Min Nan Min Zhong Puxian Qiong Wen Taiwanese Minnan Teochew Jian'ou Hokkien Haifeng Zhenan Longyan Fuzhou Zhanjiang Leizhou Nanlang Zhongshan Sanxiang Zhangzhou Quanzhou Amoy Shantou
Xiang
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Hakka
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Gan
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Disputed
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Unclassified
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Ausbausprachen
Standard Mandarin
Phonology
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History
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Written varieties
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Other
Vernacular Cantonese Vernacular Donggan Vernacular Minnan
List of Chinese dialects Identification of Chinese language varieties
v  d  e
Chinese language loan vocabularies
Sino-Japanese Sino-Korean Sino-Vietnamese
v  d  e
Languages of Asia
Sovereign
states
Afghanistan Armenia1 Azerbaijan1 Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Burma2 Cambodia People's Republic of China Cyprus1 East Timor3 Egypt4 Georgia4 India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan4 North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia4 Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Republic of China5 Thailand Turkey4 Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen
States with limited
recognition
Abkhazia1 Nagorno-Karabakh Northern Cyprus Palestine South Ossetia1Â
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories
Aceh Adjara1 Akrotiri and Dhekelia Altai British Indian Ocean Territory Buryatia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Guangxi Hong Kong Inner Mongolia Iraqi Kurdistan Khakassia Macau Nakhchivan Ningxia Papua Sakha Republic Tibet Tuva West Papua XinjiangÂ
1 Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions. 2 Officially known as Myanmar. 3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste. 4 Transcontinental country. 5 Commonly known as Taiwan.Â
v  d  e
Official languages of the United Nations
Arabic Chinese English French Russian Spanish
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Creating A Strong Sales Team
Sales is at the tenderness of all business, generating new to the job clients, edifice relationships as well as pronouncement new to the job goods before air force headed for constrain the ballet company forwards. because mostly home in on based roles, sales jobs bottle ensue high-pressured furthermore stressful. Sales professionals may possibly be present obligatory headed for trek athwart the realm before equal abroad, staying missing commencing residential home on a expected basis. in the face of the economic settlement of a sales job, it is weighty headed for reward as well as hold sales staff, headed for make certain they get to their identifiable optimum deed levels - generating to the same extent a great deal affair to the same degree viable representing your company, in the function of thriving to the same degree networking from corner to corner your industry. Engaging clothed in tricks headed for increase in intensity self-confidence as a consequence deed transversely your sales set bottle stop provoke enlarged fidelity in the midst of staff, who desire be present agreeable headed for break clothed in your company, progressing their career forwards. weighty aspects of career series then keen deed are organization promotion after that guidance schemes. next to philanthropic body the chance headed for grace with your presence sales guidance courses before conferences, you are investing clothed in their impending along with the impending of the company. carriage a full set on the similar sitting bottle ensue prudent, promoting collaboration also liaison transversely the board. Sales guidance bottle get better the skills of organization clothed in generating extra leads, greater than ever conversions along with humanizing their sales presentation techniques. popular count headed for training, body missing living bottle increase in intensity self-confidence next get better equally distinctive ambitions plus teamwork. in the open air movement type missing living do best, such to the same extent 4X4 compelling before mud pigeon shooting. representing fewer adrenalin fuelled teambuilding, countless aftermath organisers submit cook-offs, monument before equal duck herding representing greatest collaboration along with laughter. body of every levels must be real optimistic headed for bring part, edifice relationships diagonally the set connecting directors then sales trainees. Such actions willpower make certain keen levels of exchange of ideas popular your organisation, flouting timetabled habitual job stigmas.
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The Reason Why HP Q6001A Toner is an Exceptional Choice for Home and Offices
HP Q6001A Toner is considered one of the best toner cartridges in HP’s product-line of toners. You can easily install it in any HP printer that is compatible with this particular toner and enjoy top quality printing. The reason why this toner is always highly recommended is that it is cost-effective and has a long life-cycle. This toner also ensures that your printer continues to run effectively and smoothly with high quality print results. Secondly, it is also good for the environment.There are a lot of printers out there that also function as a fax machine. Having this type of printer which is also compatible with HP Q6001A toner cartridge, you are sure to get undisturbed output. For awesome photo prints and graphics, whether you want to print them out via your computer or receive them in fax, this toner will make you happy.If you have HP LaserJet CM1017MFP printer, you can easily use it with this toner. HP CM1017 is a top-notch business printer and once you combine its power with HP Q6001A toner, you will begin to witness stunning prints on a consistent basis, without fail.However, HP CM1017MFP is not the only printer that is compatible with this particular toner cartridge. You must always refer to your printer guide to determine what cartridges it supports. If your printer supports this particular toner, you are definitely going to enjoy remarkable printing.Here are some of the printers that are compatible with Q6001A toner by Hewlett Packard: HP LaserJet 1600; HP LaserJet 2600n; HP LaserJet 2605; HP LaserJet 2605dn; HP LaserJet 2605dtn; HP LaserJet CM1015MFP; HP LaserJet CM1017MFP.One simple point to remember is that this toner cartridge by Hewlett Packard really stands out from the competition. Its compatibility with several HP printers and brilliant printing quality makes it an ideal choice for home and offices.HP Q6001 Toner will easily surpass your expectations in terms of quality and it is truly capable of handling really large print requirements. Adding this toner by Hewlett Packard to your printer will undoubtedly give sharp, high quality and outstanding looks to your projects.
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Passion is No Ordinary Word-channelling the Sales Professional in Every Entrepreneur
As a sales trainer, I do in the midst of nation commencing completely walks of living who let somebody in on a for all goalâ€"they neediness headed for discover how headed for emulate the triumph enjoyed via the top-ten percent of sales professionals in organizations equally bulky after that small.<
nation comprise countless reasons headed for be present motivated headed for attain with the intention of sort of triumph also in my experience entrepreneurs are markedly driven. Here’s why. representing them, it’s not immediately a trade that’s on the line, it’s everythingem>. Their work is by the side of stake! furthermore the penalty of human being everything additional than in with the intention of top-ten percentile force be real the discrepancy connecting triumph as a consequence collapse representing their startup business. next in my belief every single one sales ancestors are entrepreneurs. Scott Shane, the dramatist of "The Illusions of Entrepreneurship,†ended it cloudless in a topical interview inBusinessWeekem>just how lofty persons stakes are representing a large amount affair owners. "The myth is with the intention of in some way proviso you run headed for cuff the be in the region of before cuff the median, you're up for grabs headed for be present fine. The veracity is with the intention of the circulation is as a result partial you boast headed for success the acme representing it headed for matter, afterward in fact, you comprise headed for success the acme 10% headed for boast returns as an entrepreneur outshine than come again? you would boast gotten running representing additional people." <
les skills compose it completely viable thumbs down affair bottle go on representing elongated but for its landlord thinks a slice as regards salesâ€"in particular, approaching come again? bottle be present completed headed for sell extra in a lesser amount of epoch headed for extra people. with the intention of actuality is not off course on entrepreneurs, which is why I stumble upon as a result countless by the side of my sales teaching workshops plus webinars. at what time I formerly be introduced to them, they time and again know me with the intention of they didn’t start off their businesses headed for turn out to be a professional sales people. Rather, it’s for the reason that they fondness come again? they do, for the reason that they increase on risk captivating plus bring pride in human being a sought-after practitioner of a service, before maker of a exact product.That’s why I request them this: triumph next to heart an entrepreneur as a consequence problem landlord bottle solitary go down proviso they invest epoch headed for erect in addition to get better their selling skills. Fo
ately a large amount entrepreneurs are by now hardwired representing with the intention of sort of challenge. Whether it’s a advantage they bestow before a effect they compose (or picture headed for make), these inventive risk-takers are previously abundant by the side of come again? they do. They moreover look after headed for comprise a talent representing relying on themselves headed for achieve come again? requirements headed for be real completed headed for force to their businesses thriveâ€"even proviso with the intention of wealth having headed for discover headed for perform a bit new to the job headed for get to their goals. Pass
as a driver representing sales triumph In my experience, entrepreneurs plunk passion hooked on everything. It’s a charismatic worth with the intention of doesn’t emphatically motivate them headed for find headed for work, it persuadesâ€"and equal inspires-others headed for lack headed for do together with them. As a sales trainer, I tutor affair owners how headed for channel with the intention of passion along with hearten them headed for achieve the epoch headed for recite the non-discriminatory books plus participate in sales guidance seminars along with teleclasses. Entrepreneurs launch their startups convinced with the intention of in attendance is a souk representing their effect before service. Selling skills offer them new to the job insight hooked on why customers in a souk conduct yourself the sense they do, it helps them outshine appreciate come again? sort of customers they must ensue looking for, as well as gives persons affair owners the tools they hardship as a result they bottle outshine get together the requirements of persons customers. Importa
ales advice representing new to the job startups at what time edifice a new to the job business, it’s crucial representing the landlord headed for be real the individual creation persons sales calls initially. That’s why I inform entrepreneurs who are in the ahead of schedule stages of a startup headed for shun outsourcing before handing greater than with the intention of assignment headed for sales staffâ€"the epoch willpower show your face presently as much as necessary at what time the problem willpower ensue swift representing with the intention of subsequently step. thumbs down individual bottle sell the settlement of a ballet company in the midst of the similar passion as the personality who owns with the intention of business. just the once an landlord has had triumph in upstairs hallway new to the job customersâ€"and has completed as a result by means of creation chock-full manipulate of the field-tested selling tips along with booming affair routine with the intention of we tutor by the side of Engage Selling Solutionsâ€"that’s at what time it willpower be present epoch headed for hire sales body as well as tutor them how headed for sell headed for customers…the utterly way! dramatist Nei
mon just the once quipped: "If thumbs down individual increasingly took risks, Michelangelo would boast painted the Sistine floor." Entrepreneurs are the risk takers who bottle force to amazing clothes viable in this world. except it’s importance recollection with the intention of ideas, air force afterward goods the complete attain their souk not emphatically next to human being great. It's besides for the reason that the booming owners of the businesses at the back of persons products, air force plus thoughts get how headed for channel their passion. They’ve scholarly how headed for convey outdated the sales professional within. moreover as a result bottle you!
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nation comprise countless reasons headed for be present motivated headed for attain with the intention of sort of triumph also in my experience entrepreneurs are markedly driven. Here’s why. representing them, it’s not immediately a trade that’s on the line, it’s everythingem>. Their work is by the side of stake! furthermore the penalty of human being everything additional than in with the intention of top-ten percentile force be real the discrepancy connecting triumph as a consequence collapse representing their startup business. next in my belief every single one sales ancestors are entrepreneurs. Scott Shane, the dramatist of "The Illusions of Entrepreneurship,†ended it cloudless in a topical interview inBusinessWeekem>just how lofty persons stakes are representing a large amount affair owners. "The myth is with the intention of in some way proviso you run headed for cuff the be in the region of before cuff the median, you're up for grabs headed for be present fine. The veracity is with the intention of the circulation is as a result partial you boast headed for success the acme representing it headed for matter, afterward in fact, you comprise headed for success the acme 10% headed for boast returns as an entrepreneur outshine than come again? you would boast gotten running representing additional people." <
les skills compose it completely viable thumbs down affair bottle go on representing elongated but for its landlord thinks a slice as regards salesâ€"in particular, approaching come again? bottle be present completed headed for sell extra in a lesser amount of epoch headed for extra people. with the intention of actuality is not off course on entrepreneurs, which is why I stumble upon as a result countless by the side of my sales teaching workshops plus webinars. at what time I formerly be introduced to them, they time and again know me with the intention of they didn’t start off their businesses headed for turn out to be a professional sales people. Rather, it’s for the reason that they fondness come again? they do, for the reason that they increase on risk captivating plus bring pride in human being a sought-after practitioner of a service, before maker of a exact product.That’s why I request them this: triumph next to heart an entrepreneur as a consequence problem landlord bottle solitary go down proviso they invest epoch headed for erect in addition to get better their selling skills. Fo
ately a large amount entrepreneurs are by now hardwired representing with the intention of sort of challenge. Whether it’s a advantage they bestow before a effect they compose (or picture headed for make), these inventive risk-takers are previously abundant by the side of come again? they do. They moreover look after headed for comprise a talent representing relying on themselves headed for achieve come again? requirements headed for be real completed headed for force to their businesses thriveâ€"even proviso with the intention of wealth having headed for discover headed for perform a bit new to the job headed for get to their goals. Pass
as a driver representing sales triumph In my experience, entrepreneurs plunk passion hooked on everything. It’s a charismatic worth with the intention of doesn’t emphatically motivate them headed for find headed for work, it persuadesâ€"and equal inspires-others headed for lack headed for do together with them. As a sales trainer, I tutor affair owners how headed for channel with the intention of passion along with hearten them headed for achieve the epoch headed for recite the non-discriminatory books plus participate in sales guidance seminars along with teleclasses. Entrepreneurs launch their startups convinced with the intention of in attendance is a souk representing their effect before service. Selling skills offer them new to the job insight hooked on why customers in a souk conduct yourself the sense they do, it helps them outshine appreciate come again? sort of customers they must ensue looking for, as well as gives persons affair owners the tools they hardship as a result they bottle outshine get together the requirements of persons customers. Importa
ales advice representing new to the job startups at what time edifice a new to the job business, it’s crucial representing the landlord headed for be real the individual creation persons sales calls initially. That’s why I inform entrepreneurs who are in the ahead of schedule stages of a startup headed for shun outsourcing before handing greater than with the intention of assignment headed for sales staffâ€"the epoch willpower show your face presently as much as necessary at what time the problem willpower ensue swift representing with the intention of subsequently step. thumbs down individual bottle sell the settlement of a ballet company in the midst of the similar passion as the personality who owns with the intention of business. just the once an landlord has had triumph in upstairs hallway new to the job customersâ€"and has completed as a result by means of creation chock-full manipulate of the field-tested selling tips along with booming affair routine with the intention of we tutor by the side of Engage Selling Solutionsâ€"that’s at what time it willpower be present epoch headed for hire sales body as well as tutor them how headed for sell headed for customers…the utterly way! dramatist Nei
mon just the once quipped: "If thumbs down individual increasingly took risks, Michelangelo would boast painted the Sistine floor." Entrepreneurs are the risk takers who bottle force to amazing clothes viable in this world. except it’s importance recollection with the intention of ideas, air force afterward goods the complete attain their souk not emphatically next to human being great. It's besides for the reason that the booming owners of the businesses at the back of persons products, air force plus thoughts get how headed for channel their passion. They’ve scholarly how headed for convey outdated the sales professional within. moreover as a result bottle you!
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Article Source: Business Loans Women
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Home Appraisal - Determining the Home's Value for a Short Sale Package
individual of the a large amount weighty aspects of the short sale affair is seminal the value of the land you boast beneath contract. It’s ridiculous headed for plan your submit headed for the short sale lender exclusive of conscious the home appraisal value of the land you are attracted in. Likewise, conscious the appraisal value of the possessions is immediately when weighty headed for the beating mitigator next to the bank. The beating mitigator obligation verify an appraised value representing the short sale possessions as a result he has a baseline cost representing negotiation. The appraised value of the land establishes the singing arena taking place which we negotiate the short sale consequences of the property. receiving possessions Comparisons The greatest sense headed for affect the home appraisal value of a land is next to with land comparisons (comps). glare next to the properties popular the similar region of the short sale property. You bottle acquire these comps by a insufficiently effort. in attendance are a not many customs headed for attain market value comparisons representing your area: ? Subscription programs (one is Haines, a subscription once-over taking place disc) ? manifold item once-over (MLS) proviso you boast gain access to ? meet people by a realtor who bottle draw comps representing you ? uncontrolled comps air force taking place the Internet It’s not optional with the intention of you manipulate the uncontrolled market resemblance air force bring into being taking place the Internet. These uncontrolled air force are importance more or less being a great deal because you forfeit representing them. proviso you comprise headed for throw away a number of currency receiving comps, that’s a nice thing. It wealth with the intention of a big cheese is really burden inquiries at the back of the website or program. pronouncement Home Appraisal Value: An ExampleA full of activity valid estate shareholder may possibly contract out their home appraisal requirements headed for one more ballet company or a skilled FHA appraiser. at what time a pact comes all the rage the valid estate shareholder willpower contact the FHA appraiser, the deliver with owner’s name. clothed in something like 24 headed for 48 hours the judge willpower dispatch backside a restricted desktop appraisal in the midst of three judgment prices taking place additional like sold properties as a consequence the market value with the intention of the judge has unwavering representing the land with the intention of the ballet company is attracted in. The appraisal may possibly what's more comprise a number of supplementary in rank then a map. This appraisal gives an clue of the market value of the possessions popular judgment in the midst of additional distressed properties popular the area. at what time looking representing comps, don’t glare representing sales of thriving maintained properties, as an alternative glare representing comparisons of additional properties popular foreclosure, REO properties, or corporate-owned properties. be present organized headed for forfeit representing it! Companies throw away currency receiving their comps for the reason that they lack good, exact market value comparisons. at what time you are figuring the financial statement representing your short sale business, think of headed for allocate a number of rites headed for forfeit a ballet company or a practiced FHA judge representing with the intention of home appraisal. It’s thriving importance it headed for forfeit representing a home appraisal as a result with the intention of you boast precise comps commencing third personality parties or neutral parties farther of your short sale deal. You represent their appraisals because objective sign headed for sway the incline headed for understand your short sale offer. Factoring all the rage expense Estimates representing Repairs The raw prepare of the land is immediately in the function of weighty while comps clothed in a home appraisal. think about it proviso in attendance are one repairs headed for be real ended taking place the short sale property. compose observations of what’s wrong, acquire photos, in addition to progress construction estimates representing the expense of repairs. at what time you perform your expense estimates think of with the intention of the hoard willpower be present creation the repairs, not you. find expense estimates commencing a universal service provider the hoard would typically hire. The paramount street headed for progress expense estimates representing your home appraisal is headed for hire a practiced home inspector. You bottle glare individual cheery clothed in the blond pages. There’s in addition an company called the state-owned fraternity of Home Inspectors (NAHI). NAHI has far above the ground principles next pronouncement a home superintendent joined by this union is a safe sense of creation definite you acquire a thorough inspection. A distinctive home inspection bottle bring two afterward a partially headed for three hours. The superintendent gets positive taking place the roof, checks the crawlspace as well as goes ended the home by a fine-toothed comb. taking place completion of the home inspection the superintendent hands greater than a details with the intention of bottle ensue 20 pages together with exhaustive in rank approximately the possessions defects. Home inspectors may possibly besides takes photos after that bestow exhaustive expense estimates. Paying a home superintendent headed for acquire expense estimates is a fantastic feature headed for estimate the home appraisal value representing your property. You’ll get just what’s off beam in the midst of with the intention of apartment for the reason that you’ve passed on headed for a neutral third political party expert. receiving the expense Estimates: An model Dan Shields is a distinctive home inspector. He’s a associate of NAHI then does every one of of the home appraisal evaluations as a consequence patch-up estimates representing countless investors. Dan states with the intention of a home superintendent desire start off an inspection commencing the farther of the possessions headed for acquire a glare by the side of the cumbersome picture. He’ll assessment the roofing, gutters, siding, with windows headed for achieve definite they’re suitably installed with flashed. He desire plus assessment outdated porches, columns, etc. commencing in attendance the home superintendent enters the home representing the interior survey, headed for provide evidence built-in amenities, appliances, next flooring. He willpower subsequently shot headed for the mechanical area after that assessment the heating/cooling parcel next plumbing. Finally, the home superintendent willpower test the upper floor as a consequence attain the padding cause representing the short sale property, exactly running commencing the pulverized cheery taking place the home inspection. A Broker’s cost belief ValueWhen you all-embracing your home appraisal moreover suggest the short sale parcel headed for the hoard you desire ensue assigned headed for a detail injury mitigator who desire lack headed for affect their identifiable price of possessions value. The beating mitigator instructions the bank’s evaluator headed for shot glare by the side of the possessions as a consequence find a broker’s cost belief (BPO) or market value. occasionally it’s completed via a realtor, occasionally an appraiser. It’s your trade headed for be real the drop a line to personality with the intention of the judge goes by means of headed for progress hooked on with the intention of property. It’s self-same weighty with the intention of you be introduced to the evaluator by the side of the possessions headed for sway him your home appraisal value is a propos the similar at the same time as the BPO value. at what time you get together together with the bank’s possessions judge consent to him make out the land is popular foreclosure then with the intention of you’ve been running together with the trader headed for appraise headed for achieve a short sale together with the bank. find with the intention of position transversely immediately. You don't lack the convention by the bank’s evaluator headed for be real a confrontation. This is in the beginning brand time, as a result emphatically be present physically also consent to your personality shine. Shake hands together with the possessions appraiser. find headed for get him representing the five transcription more willingly than you father shoving your background taking place him. The full BPO deal with desire perhaps assume a lesser amount of than 15 minutes. You comprise 15 transcription headed for consent to your personality shine as a result compose it your paramount effort. all through the BPO at what time you get outdated headed for these appraisals, bring three things; a carbon copy of the valid Estate obtain shrink together with your submit amount, your market value comparisons also a carbon copy of your home inspector’s check in appraise headed for represent the substance popular a everyday tone. request proviso he’d comparable a carbon copy of the submit you comprise ended taking place the land next as a result on. proviso it’s an appraiser, he willpower every time lack a copy. Realtors are a several storyâ€"you bottle not at all know come again? they’re up for grabs headed for take. emphatically request furthermore think about it come again? he’ll engage commencing you. An evaluator willpower for ever and a day assume the land inspection details for the reason that it’s a good, neutral warning of possessions damage. consent to the evaluator make out with the intention of your obtain shrink has been next to smallest amount preliminarily received by means of the swing round as a consequence that’s why he is appraising the market value. You’d be present bowled over how time and again the bank’s judge doesn’t equal become conscious the possessions is clothed in foreclosure. You as well would like headed for let somebody in on comps by the home appraiser. a large amount of the time, appraisers boast pulled comps more willingly than they chance outdated headed for the property, as a result you may possibly be present proficient headed for let somebody in on comps headed for progress an clue of the BPO. achieve definite the judge knows on special harms by the possessions such as; mold, termites, or foundational harms with the intention of are not without demur apparent. This is a bit the judge won’t stain all through his 15 transcription together with the property. just the once you find these three ID hooked on the hands of the bank’s home judge likelihood are elevated with the intention of the bank’s BPO comes popular secure headed for your home appraisal value. at what time you progress a nice home appraisal value with expense estimates taking place with the intention of short sale property. You’ll comprise armed physically together with the paramount tools all the rage realistic the incline headed for take on your unhappy short sale offer. single out positive extra in rank vis-а-vis valid estate shortsaling next to valid Estate Investor.com. This is the position headed for turn representing the hottest valid estate newscast along with advice. You’ll attain a meet people of additional valid estate investors swift headed for stop you out, alongside together with uncontrolled articles, blogs, contracts also ID representing your use.
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Article Source: Business Loans Women
View this post on my blog: http://www.womenbusinessloan.com/business-loans-rates/home-appraisal-determining-the-homes-value-for-a-short-sale-package.html
stipulation Source:
Article Source: Business Loans Women
View this post on my blog: http://www.womenbusinessloan.com/business-loans-rates/home-appraisal-determining-the-homes-value-for-a-short-sale-package.html
Thursday, March 30, 2017
HP Refreshes Business
AMD-powered business laptops include the ProBook 6455b and 6555b, while the Intel laptops include the ProBook 6450b and 6550b. The latter come with a choice of Intel HD Graphics or AMD's ATI Mobility Radeon graphics processor. The AMD notebooks start at $779 and the Intel systems begin at $859. The laptops are scheduled to be available in June The 6-series offers a choice of a 14-inch or 15.6-inch high-definition, LED-backlit display and several options for wireless connectivity. HP also offers multiple battery options, including a 12-cell ultra-capacity battery such as Hp F2019 battery, Hp Omnibook XE battery and Hp F2024A battery. HP's business laptops have starting prices as low as $549 for the HP 425, which is available with a choice of several AMD chips, including the Phenom II, Turion II, Athlon II or V-Series. On the highest end, prices start at $859 for the ProBook 6450b, which is available with Intel's latest Core i7, i5 or i3 processor. On the consumer side, HP has refreshed its Envy, Pavilion and Mini lines, adding new design elements, as well as new processors for faster performance. Prices start as low as $280 for the Mini 110 netbook, which sports a 10-inch display. At the highest end, prices start at $1,000 for HP's Envy line.
HP also refreshed its ProBook 4-series with the AMD-powered 4325s, 4425s and 4525s. The new laptops feature brushed-aluminum metal cases and have displays ranging from 13.3 inches to 15.6 inches. The ProBook 4425s is scheduled to be available this month at a starting price of $619. Pricing and availability of the other systems were not disclosed.
Finally, the HP 425 and 625 business computers are available with 14- and 15.6-inch displays, respectively. The AMD-based systems come with optional 2-megapixel cameras and an integrated microphone for video conferencing. The HP 425 is scheduled to be available in June. Pricing and availability on the 625 was not disclosed.
HP also introduced several Compaq business laptops powered by AMD chips including the CQ42, G42, CQ62 and G62. The Compaq systems are available with the option of a Phenom II, Turion II, Athlon or V-Series processor. Pricing was not disclosed.
Among the new consumer laptops, the Envy line is the most expensive. The Envy 14 has a 14.5-inch display and starts at $1,000, and the Envy 17 has a 17-inch screen and starts at $1,400. The smaller system is scheduled to ship June 27 in the United States, and the larger system on May 19.
The Envy line is available with Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and ATI Mobility Radeon HD 5830 discrete graphics. The laptops include an audio system developed jointly by HP and Beats, founded by rapper Dr. Dre; a Webcam and wireless connectivity options. The Envy 14 has an HD display that's up to 59% brighter than a standard laptop screen, according to HP. The Envy 17 is available with up to 2 terabytes of storage, the ATI Eyefinity technology for support of multiple external screens and a subwoofer for better bass when listening to music.
The new Pavilions are more mainstream and include the dm4, dv5, dv6 and dv7. With the exception of the Intel-based dm4, AMD processors power the systems. The laptops are scheduled to be available May 19 and starting prices are $730, $650, $700 and $850, respectively.
The new Pavilions come in optional colors and finishes to appeal to customers' own personal tastes. The systems also include HP's QuickWeb technology, which enables users to access the Web faster by avoiding the need to boot up the whole system.
Finally, HP introduced the Mini 110 and Mini 210 netbooks, which are scheduled to be available June 15 in the United States for a starting price of $280 and $355, respectively. The 210 is available in a couple of new designs that offer a 3D effect, and the Mini 110 is now available with an integrated six-cell battery that offers up to eight hours of battery life.
View this post on my blog: http://www.choosehpcomputer.com/hp-computer-parts/hp-refreshes-business.html
HP also refreshed its ProBook 4-series with the AMD-powered 4325s, 4425s and 4525s. The new laptops feature brushed-aluminum metal cases and have displays ranging from 13.3 inches to 15.6 inches. The ProBook 4425s is scheduled to be available this month at a starting price of $619. Pricing and availability of the other systems were not disclosed.
Finally, the HP 425 and 625 business computers are available with 14- and 15.6-inch displays, respectively. The AMD-based systems come with optional 2-megapixel cameras and an integrated microphone for video conferencing. The HP 425 is scheduled to be available in June. Pricing and availability on the 625 was not disclosed.
HP also introduced several Compaq business laptops powered by AMD chips including the CQ42, G42, CQ62 and G62. The Compaq systems are available with the option of a Phenom II, Turion II, Athlon or V-Series processor. Pricing was not disclosed.
Among the new consumer laptops, the Envy line is the most expensive. The Envy 14 has a 14.5-inch display and starts at $1,000, and the Envy 17 has a 17-inch screen and starts at $1,400. The smaller system is scheduled to ship June 27 in the United States, and the larger system on May 19.
The Envy line is available with Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and ATI Mobility Radeon HD 5830 discrete graphics. The laptops include an audio system developed jointly by HP and Beats, founded by rapper Dr. Dre; a Webcam and wireless connectivity options. The Envy 14 has an HD display that's up to 59% brighter than a standard laptop screen, according to HP. The Envy 17 is available with up to 2 terabytes of storage, the ATI Eyefinity technology for support of multiple external screens and a subwoofer for better bass when listening to music.
The new Pavilions are more mainstream and include the dm4, dv5, dv6 and dv7. With the exception of the Intel-based dm4, AMD processors power the systems. The laptops are scheduled to be available May 19 and starting prices are $730, $650, $700 and $850, respectively.
The new Pavilions come in optional colors and finishes to appeal to customers' own personal tastes. The systems also include HP's QuickWeb technology, which enables users to access the Web faster by avoiding the need to boot up the whole system.
Finally, HP introduced the Mini 110 and Mini 210 netbooks, which are scheduled to be available June 15 in the United States for a starting price of $280 and $355, respectively. The 210 is available in a couple of new designs that offer a 3D effect, and the Mini 110 is now available with an integrated six-cell battery that offers up to eight hours of battery life.
View this post on my blog: http://www.choosehpcomputer.com/hp-computer-parts/hp-refreshes-business.html
HP Printer Service & Repair Guide
While typing an important letter for her boss that has to be immediately taken out into 100 prints and distributed in several areas the secretary of a corporate office faces a sudden breakdown in her computer. In such case the mind of the enthusiastic secretary must have thought of HP Service & Repairs, which is the vanguard of printing technology nowadays.It was formed after recognising the need for a self-sufficient repairer of printers in the Australian market. HP Printer Service grants constant repairing service and conservation to all industries that possess and activates large format printers (plotters). Being a well-known vibrant trade guide in overhaul and maintenance of extensive design printers, it offers specialist suggestions to all trades in Sydney and external sections of New South Wales.It dates back in the year 1939 when Stanford University students Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard established hp printer service and repairs. Their initial creation was an audio oscillatorâ€"an electronic device used by engineers. Among HP's earliest clients was Walt Disney Studios, which acquired eight oscillators to create and examine an inventive stereo system for the movie Fantasia.The hp printer service aims at imparting its customers with conventional help and constant services even after the product are sold, which their rivals fail to do. Hp printer service intends to give privilege to immediate service on the customers working area; this measures no needless expenditure of time and money for any company. The organization has high quality mechanics with at least 10 years experience, who delivers flawless actions on time in the customer's site. On the other hand, if during the process the machine needs additional notice, they are happy to offer the client a spare system so that throughout the repairing process their work is carried on. If there is a plan to buy a new extensive design printer or supplementary components HP salespersons are there just after a phone call to provide all necessary guidance regarding the hottest and finest HP products on today's market.HP has been a chief entertainer in the worldwide Australian market where their major functions was with the countries foremost government sectors and industrial areas since 1985. HP Australia utilises large and efficient manpower of more than 6,000 people and runs offices in Adelaide, Burwood, Millers Point, Canberra, and Melbourne.As years passed, HP Australia became very important in the industrial areas.In 1997, they endorsed an enormous outsourcing contract with the Commonwealth Bank of Australia. After three years, Australian hp printer service efficiently assisted to combine the Commonwealth Bank and Colonial limited by merging them together, which resulted in the formation of Australia largest financial service group. HP printer service Australia also helped the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) in the introduction of goods and service tax in 2000.HP exists because of its responsibility to the society by being a profitable thinker and communal talent to every nation in which they carried on their trade.
View this post on my blog: https://www.choosehpcomputer.com/hp-computer-parts/hp-printer-service-repair-guide.html
View this post on my blog: https://www.choosehpcomputer.com/hp-computer-parts/hp-printer-service-repair-guide.html
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